Foreign Direct Investment In Nigeria

Foreign Direct Investment In Nigeria The Nigeria economy has attained the middle income status according to the World Bank, with its ample stock of natural resources and institutional development and growth in the country. The Stock Exchange market in Nigeria is the second largest in Africa. The GDP Purchasing Power Parity was ranked 31st in the World as at the end of 2011. The balance of payment showed a trade surplus with the United States which is her largest foreign investor and a recipient of the largest export market for U.S. goods. During the  oil boom  of the 1970s, Nigeria accumulated a weighty foreign debt to finance key infrastructural investments. In October 2005, Nigerian authorities had a negotiation with its Paris Club  creditors and concluded on an agreement in which Nigeria debt was discounted by approximately 60%. Nigeria thereby used part of its oil profits to pay the residual 40%, releasing up at least $1.15  billion annually for poverty reduction programmes being carried out. History was rec orded in Nigeria after the debts were paid and was now known as the first African country to pay up all owed debt to the Paris club amounting to an estimated value of $30  billion. It is important to know that Petroleum  plays a large role in the Nigerian economy, accounting for 40% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 80% of Government earnings. The telecommunication market in Nigeria is one of the World fastest growing fastest growing markets with major emerging market operators (like MTN, Etisalat, Zain and Globacom) who based their largest and most profitable centers in the country.  The government has recently begun expanding this infrastructure to  space based communications with a space satellite which is monitored at the Nigerian National Space Research and Development Agency Headquarters in Abuja. The financial service sector has developed as a result of the combination of international and local banks, brokerage houses, insurance companies and brokers, asset management companies, private equity funds and investment banks. Rampant inflation has occurred on the Naira and the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) has been trying to control the rate to remai n below 10%, in 2011, CBN increased interest rate, rising from 6.25% to 12%. On 31 January 2012, CBN decided to maintain the key interest rate at 12%, in order to reduce the impact of inflation due to reduction in fuel subsidies. Though the, the inflation rate in Nigeria was recorded at 12.80 percent in July of 2012. The unemployment situation in Nigeria is currently high just like how it has affected the global world due to the economic crisis as it was last reported at 23.9 percent in 2011. 2.2 Foreign Direct Investment in Nigeria A definition contained in the Balance of Payment Manual (Washington, D.C. International Monetary Fund, 1997 and 1993) defined Foreign direct investment as investment completed through a long lasting management interest of an organization, enterprise or professional body operating in a country other than that of the investor in question. And must have at least 10% ownership of the organization considered as FDI (Patterson et al 2004). Usually FDI are made by large multinational (MNEs) through acquisition or merger or the development of a new facility. The broad spectrum of all the MNEs is that they play a dominant role in Research and Development by bringing new technologies into such country and also they have great influence on the economy they invest in (Balaam and Veseth, 2008). The debate of FDI has increased as a result of the large flow of FDI into both developed and developing country and its importance on the growth in such economies and global economy at large. The component s of FDI should not be mistaken; this includes equity capital, reinvested earnings and intra-company loans. Equity capital is the foreign direct investors net purchase of the shares and loans of an enterprise in the country of investment other than its own. Re invested earnings is part of an affiliates earning accruing to the foreign investor that is reinvested in that enterprise. And intra-company loans are short or long term loans from parent firms to affiliate enterprise or vice-versa. 2.2.1Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment The economic determinants of inward FDI can be grouped for conveniences sake into three categories each reflecting the motivation for investing in foreign countries in specific Nigeria. This includes resource seeking, market seeking and efficiency seeking. Resource seeking is a principal determinant because the availability of natural resources in the host country determines if such country is well endowed and if investment is possible. In previous years the agriculture sector in Nigeria was booming and served as a great form of investment venture in the economy as the earnings accruing from it boosted the economic growth of the country. However in recent years, the oil and gas industry has overshadowed the agriculture sector and therefore neglected as resources and funds have been used to improve the oil and gas sector. Petroleum oil since then has served as a huge avenue for foreign investors because of the abundance in the country the inflow to that sector has been high and theref ore contributing about 40% to Gross domestic product, 90% of exports and 80% of government revenue. The relevance of economic determinant for attracting market seeking FDI is the market size in absolute terms. Large market can accommodate domestic and foreign thereby helping to boost firms production to operate on scale and scope economies and Nigeria has a wide market base. Efficiency seeking determinants can be other forms that reflect the motivation to invest such as that availability of low-cost unskilled labor in Nigeria. 2.2.2 Challenges of the Operating Environment for FDI Some of the major limitations to attracting investment in Nigeria include unfriendly investment environment, inconsistency in government policies, others are social vices such as insecurity corruption, financial and economic crimes as well as conflicting policies. The challenge therefore is to reverse these: (i) The Capital market The Nigerian capital market was also not secured in the tumults of the global economic crisis, in April 2008; the market experienced a downturn in the history of capital market operations in the country. This unprecedented sinking of the stocks forced both foreign and local investors who had opted for the advantage of the optimal return on investments on the stock exchange began to scoot elsewhere in extreme anxiety. (ii) Energy As a result of the global economic crisis the demand for oil decreased, resulting in oil prices dipping from $140 per barrel in the third quarter of the year to $44, and being the principal source of the countrys revenue earner. The foreign reserves dwindled from $65billion to $45billion within six months from the third to last the quarter of the year. Apart from the above, Nigerias high propensity for imports was also part of the reasons for the fast diminished foreign reserves. In 2006, 2.5millions barrels per day were produced and grew to about 3millions barrels per day. Unfortunately the Niger River Delta violence during this period cut off 600,000 barrels per day. Furthermore, the lack of qualified technical staff was a constraint, kidnapping in the Delta also made recruiting expatriate staff difficult, especially for the oil services companies (iii) Power: Numerous ways of improving infrastructural development have been embarked upon by government but still to no avail. Development of infrastructure particularly electric energy has been and still remains a major concern of investors even despite the Power Reform Program, no productive result has been achieved (Bello 2011). The inadequate infrastructure has imposed high transaction cost for business and thereby militating against growth of the private sector 2.3 Foreign Direct Investment Flows This section discusses and explains the pattern of Foreign Direct Investment flow in the World and in Nigeria. 2.3.1Trends and Pattern of FDI in the World The world economy has gone global due to the liberalization of trade, the breaking of business barriers, technological advancements, capital markets and the growth of international goods and services or ideas over the past decades. Ayanwale (2007), many developing countries see FDI as an important element in their strategy for economic development and this has led to the speedy growth of FDI around the world. In developing countries, Mergers and acquisitions including private- to-private transactions as well as acquisitions through privatization became an important vehicle for FDI (Kyaw, 2003). Therefore, developing countries have made impact on the global economy as a result of large domestic market, cheap and skilled labor, low labor costs and high returns on investment especially in the economics of industrialized states. This has led to many countries improving their business climate to attract more FDI. In fact, one of the pillars for launching the new partnership for Africas de velopment (NEPAD) was to accelerate FDI inflows to the region (Funke and Nsouli, 2003). The trend of FDI depicts in the diagram below of the inflow of FDI in the past twenty years as there has been an upward movement from 1990 and a decrease in1999 then rose again in 2003 and continued to rise until the decrease again from 2007 and has remained very low due to the world economic crises that has been ongoing. Figure 2.1: World Foreign Direct Investment Inflow Source: World Development Indicators 2008 Fifty-seven new measures affecting FDI were introduced by forty African countries of which forty-nine among these measures encouraged inward FDI (UNCTAD, 2007). The increase in FDI inflows largely reflected strong performance and relatively high economic growth (UNCTAD, 2008). 30% of total FDI inflows were accounted for as reinvested earnings as a result of increased profits of foreign affiliates, notably in developing countries. In Africa, FDI inflows increased from $18 billion in 2004 to $36 billion in 2006. This was due to improved prospects for corporate profits, increased interest in natural resources and a more favorable business climate. As regards this, many studies have been conducted to ascertain these; however, the results do not give accurate evidence of the impact of FDI on the economy of developing countries. For example, Lumbila (2005), Sylwester (2005) and Ndikumana and Verick (2008) show that there is a positive effect of FDI on economic growth, while others such as (Fry, 1993, Dutt, 1997; Hermes and Lensink, 2003) gave contrary conclusions. Further, other studies suggest that the effect of FDI on economic growth may depend on whether the country has minimal level of absorptive capacity that is a prevailing environment that can attract FDI such as educated workforce, institutional infrastructure and liberalized markets (Borenztein et al., 1998; Carkovic and Levine, 2002; Le Vu and Suruga, 2005). 2.3.2Trends and Pattern of FDI in Nigeria Nigeria a country well-endowed with natural resources and a very large market sizes qualifies to be a major recipient of FDI in West Africa and indeed one of the top leading West African Countries that has consistently received FDI in years past as we see in the figure below: Figure 2.2: Nigeria Foreign Direct Investment stock Source: UNCTAD 2012 However the level of FDI attracted by FDI has shown no specific significant value in the growth of the economy and is been seen as mediocre (Asiedu 2003) compared with the resources of the country. Furthermore, the empirical relationship between FDI and economic growth has remained unclear despite numerous studies that have examined the subject of interest. However, recent evidence supports that the relationship between FDI and growth may be country and period specific. Asiedu (2001) submits that the determinants of FDI in one region may not be the same for other regions. Although it has been generally acknowledged that FDI is an important aspect of the recent wave of globalization across countries. FDI inflow to diverse regions of the world has been increasing dramatically. The total world FDI as at 1990 stood at US$204443370862.543 and grew dramatically to US$815219446619.453 (World Bank 2012). Only few countries have been successful in attracting significant FDI flows. But West Af rica as a whole has not benefitted particularly from the FDI boom. In West Africa, FDI amounted to 14012.54758974US dollars in 1990 and has been increasing gradually and currently stands at 110394 US dollars (UNCTAD 2012). Although UNCTADs World Investment Report 2004 reported that Africas outlook for FDI is promising, the expected surge is yet to be manifest. Nigeria is one of the few countries that have consistently benefited from the FDI inflow to West Africa and has turned out to be one of the most attractive countries in West Africa in terms of FDI inflows with a value of $69242million in 2011 amongst others such as Ghana with $12320miilion, Liberia with $546smillions, Cote d Ivoire with $6408millions and Niger with $3123millions. Nigeria share of FDI inflow to West Africa in 2011 covers about 63%. As percentage of GDP, foreign direct investment has increased substantially since 1990 till 2001 but began to drop since 2002 and currently stand at 29.16%. Although the value of FDI inflow into Nigeria has been on the increase. This is attributable to the economic reforms and the resulting of macroeconomic stability, which have instilled great credibility in the Nigerian economy. However the FDI contribution as a percentage to Gross domestic Product has fallen but the Nigerian economy has experienced strong growth in recent years. Real GDP growth averaged 7.8 percent from 2004 to 2007, and growth of 6.4 percent in 2007. Sectorally, there was a surge of FDI flows in the primary sector, mainly oil and gas. In 2008 Nigeria was at the top of the ten Africa FDI recipient nations with over US$20billion. The ethnic conflicts and youth restlessness in the Niger delta affected the level of the crude Oil production. The election tension and these socio-political conflicts aggravated the problems of insecurity and hence the improbability in the domestic business environment which in turn impacted negatively on the inflow of FDI. Towards this the Federal Government has improved the security in that region and the youths in that region are being empowered to participate in productive ventures. In addition, the services sector particularly, transport, storage and communications continued to attract FDI since 2006. Oil accounts for nearly 40 per cent of GDP, but from 2001 to 2006-except in 2003-real growth in other sectors outpaced growth in the oil sector. For example the telecommunication sector experienced strong growth after its privatization. In spite of the surplus of studies on FDI and economic growth in Nigeria, the existing empirical evidence on the causal relationship between foreign direct investment and economic growth and the associated benefits is very inconclusive. In spite of a seemingly positive association between FDI and economic growth, the empirical literature has not reached a consensus on the direction of this impact, however, suggesting that foreign direct investment can be either beneficial or harmful to economic growth. The principal driving force for this work is that for developing economies, and for Nigeria in particular, the issue of economic growth is an important one. 2.4Sources and sectorial distribution of Foreign Direct Investment in Nigeria Nigeria sources of FDI over the years have been increasing. There are more countries investing in Nigeria than in previous years. Some countries include USA, UK, China, and Netherlands amongst others.   Nigerias most important sources of FDI have traditionally been the home countries of the oil majors. The USA, present in Nigerias oil sector through Chevron Texaco and Exxon Mobil, had investment stock of USD3.4 billion in Nigeria in 2008, the latest figures available. The UK, one of the host countries of Shell, is another key FDI partner UK FDI into Nigeria accounts for about 20% of Nigerias total foreign investment. As China is striving to expand its trade relationships with Africa, it is becoming one of Nigerias most important sources of FDI; Nigeria is Chinas second largest trading partner in Africa, next to South Africa. From US$3 billion in 2003, Chinas direct investment in Nigeria is reported to be now worthwhile. Different sectors have received different amount of FDI in Nigeria. The total volume of FDI captured through the Central Bank of Nigeria is US$7,750billion. This represented about 11% increase over 2007 figure of US$6,935billion. The non-oil sector attracted US$7,109billion which represents about 91% of the inflow with the services sector being the major beneficiary with about 82% of the total inflow into the economy. The banking and finance sector accounted for about 9%. The country remains the highest destination of investment within the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) region by attracting about 50% of the total volume into the region. It is evident to note that when compared to other countries in Africa in terms of total stock of FDI attracted over the last ten years. Nigeria is ranked second to South Africa as we see in the figure below: Figure 2.3: Selected African Countries FDI inflow in comparison with Nigeria Source: UNCTAD 2008 2.5Foreign Direct Investment policies Framework 2.5.1Investment Framework and Bodies The Nigerian Investment Promotion Commission Act laid out the framework for Nigerias investment policy in 1995. Under the Act, foreign ownership of 100% is allowed in other industries apart from Oil and Gas industry where investment is constrained to existing joint ventures or new production-sharing agreements. The essence is to promote and facilitate investment in Nigeria. In 2006, a One Stop Investment Centre (OSIC) was set up to bring together agencies with mandate as regards investment and streamline the process of investing in the country. Furthermore, the Commission is required to encourage, promote and co-ordinate investment in the Nigeria Economy. The law allows the Commission to grant approvals on fiscal concessions on industry interrelated incentives such as: Export oriented industry, Local raw material utilization, and Pioneer industries, Implant training, Research and development, Investment on infrastructural facilities, Investment in economically disadvantaged areas; pr ovided that the fiscal incentives for which approvals are given shall be for tax concessions (NIPC 2006-2008 Report). Other Stakeholders that were represented within the One Stop Investment Centre (OSIC) are: Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC): who will be responsible for name search and company incorporation registration. Nigerian Immigration Services (NIS): will be in charge of Expatriate Quota Positions, Regularization of Permanent Work Permits, and other immigration facilities. Nigeria Customs Service (NCS): has the role of issuance of import and export guidelines procedure for citing excise factories goods clearance facilitation and generation information on fiscal policy issues. Federal Inland Revenue Services (FIRS): is responsible for tax registration, payments of stamp duties, issuance of tax clearance certificate and issuance of tax forms National Agency for Food and Drug administration and Control (NAFDAC): has the function of registration of regulated products, issuance of export certificate, authorization to import of unregistered products Standard Organization of Nigeria (SON): is responsible for facilitating all aspect of standardization activities, approvals or permit for use of standards and provide guidelines for investors. Amongst others. 2.5.2 Other Policy incentives Investment incentives are commonly intended to provide tariff, fiscal and other concessions to enterprises that meet certain criteria such as choice of sector, size, location and employment creation etc. This applies both to foreign and domestic investors. Thus, for the main aim of attracting identified strategic investments, the NIPC by its mandate is expected to execute full authority in the administration of the numerous incentives to encourage investment activities. However, this has not been the case as some Federal Ministries and agencies are also performing this function and leading to misplaced obligation. This requires coordination and streamlining for effectiveness and efficiency. The recent Presidential Committee on Problems of Investors is doing its best in overcoming most of the constraints and attempt are being made to review the incentive regime and make them responsive to the yearnings of investors. Other investment promotional activities include: Sensitization programme aimed at educating the Public on its activities and to seek public support for its programmes. Hosting business and investment forums like successfully organized the 1st Nigeria-Brazil Business and investment Forum which held in Sao Paulo, African Petroleum, Energy and Mining Forum in Beijing, Nigerian Argentine Business Investment Forums and other conferences being organized to promote investment like International Business Leaders Conference (NIPC 2006-2008 Report). 2.6 Linking Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth The link between Foreign Direct Investment and Economic Growth has been a subject of debate for many decades and has been subject to empirical scrutiny. There have been new found facts about this link due to the emergence of the globalized world in recent times. This is due to the acknowledgement of Multinational Corporation, capital accumulation and large investment in trade in developing countries. Foreign direct investment is bundle of capital stock and technology, and can augment the existing stock of knowledge in the host economy through skill acquisition and diffusion, labor training and the introduction of new managerial practices and organizational arrangements (De Mello 1997). Three literatures have added to the subject of FDI-led growth. First, previous studies based on the assumption that there is only one causality from FDI to GDP growth and have been criticized in more recent studies (for example Kholdy 1995). In other words not only can FDI cause negative or positive ef fect on growth but growth can affect the flow of FDI. Secondly, the new-growth model has resulted in some reappraisal of determinant of growth in modeling the role played by FDI in growth process. Thirdly, the new development in econometrics theory such as time series concept of integration and causality testing has further expanded the ongoing contest of the relationship between FDI and economic growth. Foreign direct investment can impact growth directly and indirectly. The impact of FDI can be seen to directly impact growth through capital accumulation, and the incorporation of new inputs and foreign technologies in the production function of the host country. Neoclassical and endogenous growth models have used empirical test to check the theoretical benefits of FDI. In the neoclassical growth models FDI promotes economic growth by increasing the volume of investment but FDI affects growth only in the short run because of diminishing returns to capital in the long run. Longà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ run growth in the neoclassical models arises from exogenous growth of the labor force and exogenous technological progress. In the endogenous growth models FDI raises growth through technological diffusion from the developed countries to the developing. This permanent knowledge transfer from FDI accounts for the diminishing returns that result in long run growth. The endogenous growth literature has identified country conditions that must be present for FDI to have a positive impact on growth such as the complementarity between domestic and foreign investment, adequate leve ls of human capital, open trade regimes, and wellà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ developed financial markets. Some of the most important endogenous growth empirical research has been discussed in the literature review section. It is now necessary to look at the impact of FDI on growth in the economy and the analysis on whether FDI has an effect on economic growth; this will be discussed in the next chapter.

Merit vs Anniversary Pay Rates Essay

Performance reviews are an integral part of business. Employees crave feedback, whether it is positive or negative, as it provides motivation and a better understanding of the job requirements. Anniversary Date and Common Merit Date performance reviews each have advantages and disadvantages. It would behoove the human resource professional to choose the approach that best suits their organization’s needs and goals. Some of the factors that should be taken into consideration are; planning cycles, hiring practices, and organizational culture (Koss, 2009, p. 7) Anniversary reviews are commonly used when the organization has a lot of hourly, lower level employees (Koss, 2009, p. 2). This method provides a fair system. â€Å"Every employee receives a performance appraisal and sometimes a compensation adjustment on the one year anniversary of their start in a job, and at one-year intervals thereafter. All employees get reviewed and receive compensation adjustments at the same interval† (p. 2). This method is popular when the organization wishes to evaluate select employee performances against industry established standards, instead of vetting an employee against an alternate employee (p 2). [The Anniversary Date Method can] lighten the managers’ workloads and increases the likelihood that they’ll spend more time on their employee performance reviews, since they’re not caught trying to do them all at once. In addition, they spread out the appraisal-related workload over the year, avoiding processing peaks† (p. 2). Sometimes, Anniversary Date reviews are not the ideal choice. â€Å"An employee’s future is based solely on his/her manager’s subjective opinion of them† (p. 2). When appraisals are conducted annually, and on the anniversary date, usually about half of the staff is in line with prospective organizational objectives (p. ). Another con of this method is that the appraisal date generally does not match with any specific performance period (p. 2). This method can also result in inadequate reporting, and lesser understanding of why objectives were not met (p. 2). Because the manager is evaluating the performance of the individual, and not the comparative performance of their peers, it can create an unfair environment, and compensation allocations may be unequal (p. 3). Managers tend to try and accommodate the compensation budget, which is directly related to the cyclical ups and downs of the economy. If there is no money left in the budget, an employee with a year end review may receive a lower increase, not because they are less deserving, but because there is no more room left in the budget (p. 3). Common Merit Date Reviews is a procedure where organizations evaluate all of their employees at one specific time (p. 3). â€Å"One of the biggest advantage is that †¦they allow for corporate and individual goals to unite. HR actually spends less administration time on focal reviews because the process typically runs over a few months, rather than an entire year. This allows for†¦everyone in the organization to align their goals appropriately† (p. ). Because everything is done at one time, and each employee’s performance is being evaluated at the same time, managers can compare employees to each other, and provide consistent and fair appraisals, and allow for compensation to be [somewhat] unaffected by changing business cycles (p. 4). â€Å"Another advantage is that if any changes to evaluation criteria have to be made, new forms or processes can be distributed out to everyone at the same time† (p. 4). When the organization is focused on completing appraisals once a year, it can be much simpler to offer training on tools, processes, and skills necessary (p. ). While there are many advantages to the Common Merit Date Review, there are still a few disadvantages. Newer employees will not be permitted a full year of performance for evaluation. If there are a large number of employees, managers will need a significant amount of time to review the process and may have to neglect other tasks until the process is complete (p. 6) †¢Koss, S. (2009). Which is Best? Anniversary vs. Focal (Common Date) Performance Reviews. Koss Management. Retrieved February 26, 2011, from kosshrexpert. com/Article-WhichisBest. pdf

Sop for Msc in Electrical Engineering

e idea of the first cellular network was brainstormed in 1947. It was intended to be used for military purposes as a way of supplying troops with more advanced forms of communications. From 1947 till about 1979 several different forms of broadcasting technology emerged. The United States began to develop the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) network, while European countries were developing their own forms of communication. 1. 2 History of GSM Technology Europeans quickly realized the disadvantages of each European country operating on their mobile network. It prevents cell phone use from country to country within Europe.With the emerging European Union and high travel volume between countries in Europe this was seen as a problem. Rectifying the situation the Conference of European Posts and Telegraphs (CEPT) assembled a research group with intentions of researching the mobile phone system in Europe. This group was called Group Special Mobile (GSM). For the next ten years the GSM group outlined standards, researched technology and designed a way to implement a pan-European mobile phone network. In 1989 work done by the GSM group was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI).The name GSM was transposed to name the type of service invented. The acronym GSM had been changed from Group Special Mobile to Global Systems Mobile Telecommunications. By April of 1991 commercial service of the GSM network had begun. Just a year and half later in 1993 there were already 36 GSM networks in over 22 countries. Several other countries were on the rise to adopt this new mobile phone network and participate in what was becoming a worldwide standard. At the same time, GSM also became widely used in the Middle East, South Africa and Australia.While the European Union had developed a sophisticated digital cell phone system, the United States was still operating primarily on the old, analog AMPS network and TDMA. Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Instit ute of Technology, Phagwara 2 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING In the end o the end of October 2001, Cingular was the first to announce their switch to the 3G GSM network. This involved switching more then 22 million customers from TDMA to GSM. In 2005 Cingular stopped new phone activation on the TDMA network and began only selling GSM service. 1. History of GSM in brief †¢1982:CEPT (Conference of European Posts and Telecommunications) establishes a GSM group in order to develop the standards for pan-European cellular mobile system †¢1988:Validation of the GSM System. †¢1991:Commercial launch of the GSM service. †¢1992:Enlargement of the countries that signed the GSM-MoU> Coverage of larger cities/airports. †¢1993:Coverage of main roads GSM services start outside Europe. †¢1995:Phase 2 of the GSM specifications Coverage of rural areas. 1. 4 GSM Frequency Band There are five major GSM frequencies that have become standard worldwide. They are following  ¦GS M-1800  ¦GSM850 GSM-1900  ¦GSM-400 1. 4. 1 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 GSM-900 and GSM-1800 are standards used mostly worldwide. It is the frequency European phones operate on as well as most of Asia and Australia. 1. 4. 2 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 GSM-850 and GSM-1900 are primarily United States frequencies. They are also the standard for Canada GSM service and countries in Latin and South America. Most of the Cingular network operates on GSM 850, while much of T-Mobile operates at GSM-1900. T-Mobile however, has roaming agreements with Cingular. Meaning in the case of no service at GSM-1900, the phone will switch to GSM-850 and operate on Cingular’s network. . 4. 3 GSM-400 GSM-400 is the least popular of the bunch and is rarely used. It is an older frequency that was used in Russia and Europe before GSM-900 and GSM-1800 became available. There are not many networks currently operating at this frequency. .5 GSM Services . The GSM services are grouped into three categories: 1. Telese rvices (TS) 2. Bearer services (BS) 3. Supplementary services (SS) 1. 5. 1 Teleservices Regular telephony, emergency calls, and voice messaging are within Teleservices. Telephony, the old bidirectional speech calls, is certainly the most popular of all services.An emergency call is a feature that allows the mobile subscriber to contact a nearby emergency service, such as police, by dialing a unique number. Voice messaging permits a message to be stored within the voice mailbox of the called party either because the called party is not reachable or because the calling party chooses to do so. 1. 5. 2 Bearer Services Data services, short message service (SMS), cell broadcast, and local features are within BS. Rates up to 9. 6 kbit/s are supported. With a suitable data terminal or computer connected directly to the mobile apparatus, data may be sent through circuit-switched or packet-switched networks.Short messages containing as many as 160 alphanumeric characters can be transmitted to or from a mobile phone. In this case, a message center is necessary. The broadcast mode (to all subscribers) in a given geographic area may also be used for short messages of up to 93 alphanumeric characters. Some local features of the mobile terminal may be used. These may include, for example, abbreviated dialing, edition of short messages, repetition of failed calls, and others. .5. 3 Supplementary Services Some of the Supplementary Services are as follows: 1.Advice of charge:- This SS details the cost of a call in progress. 2. Barring of all outgoing calls: – This SS blocks outgoing calls. 3. Barring of international calls:- This SS blocks incoming or outgoing international calls as a whole or only those associated with a specific basic service, as desired. 4. Barring of roaming calls: – This SS blocks all the incoming roaming calls or only those associated with a specific service. 5. Call forwarding:- This SS forwards all incoming calls, or only those associated with a specific basic service, to another directory number.The forwarding may be unconditional or may be performed when the mobile subscriber is busy, when there is no reply, when the mobile subscriber is not reachable, or when there is radio congestion. 6. Call hold: – This SS allows interruption of a communication on an existing call. Subsequent reestablishment of the call is permitted. 7. Call waiting: – This SS permits the notification of an incoming call when the mobile subscriber is busy. 8. Call transfer: – This SS permits the transference of an established incoming or outgoing call to a third party. 9.Completion of calls to busy subscribers: – This SS allows notification of when a busy called subscriber becomes free. At this time, if desired, the call is reinitiated. 10. Closed user group:- This SS allows a group of subscribers to communicate only among themselves. 11. Calling number identification presentation/restriction: – This SS permit s the presentation or restricts the presentation of the calling party’s identification number (or additional address information). 12. Connected number identification presentation: – This SS indicatChapter 2 GSM Identitieses the phone number that has been reached Chapter 2 GSM Identities 2.Classification of GSM IDENTITY NUMBER  ¦Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN)  ¦International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)  ¦Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)  ¦International Mobile Station Equipment Identity (IMEI)  ¦Location Area Identity (LAI) .2. 1 Mobile Station ISDN Number (MSISDN) The MSISDN is a number which uniquely identifies a mobile telephone subscription in the public switched telephone network numbering plan. According to the CCITT recommendations, the mobile telephone number or catalogue number to be dialled is composed in the following way: MSISDN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination CodeSN = Subscriber Number E. g. 919822012345 = 91 + 98 + 22 + 012345 A National Destination Code is allocated to each GSM PLMN. In some countries, more than one NDC may be required for each GSM PLMN. The international MSISDN number may be of variable length. The maximum length shall be 15 digits, prefixes not included. 2. 2 International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) The IMSI is the information which uniquely identifies a subscriber in a GSM/PLMN. For a correct identification over the radio path and through the GSM PLMN network, a specific identity is allocated to each subscriber.This identity is called the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI) and is used for all signalling in the PLMN. It will be stored in the Subscriber Identity Module (SIM), as well as in the Home Location Register (HLR) and in the serving Visitor Location Register (VLR). The IMSI consists of three different parts: IMSI = MCC + MNC + MSIN MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits) MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits) MSIN = Mobile Subscriber Ident ification Number (max 10 digits) e. g. 404 + 22 +0000123456 According to the GSM recommendations, the IMSI will have a length of maximum 15 digits.All network–related subscriber information is connected to the IMSI 2. 3 Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) HLR knows in what MSC/VLR Service Area the subscriber is located. In order to provide a temporary number to be used for routing, the HLR requests the current MSC/VLR to allocate and return a Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN) for the called subscriber At reception of the MSRN, HLR sends it to the GMSC, which can now route the call to the MSC/VLR exchange where the called subscriber is currently registered.The interrogation call routing function (request for an MSRN) is part of the Mobile Application Part (MAP). All data exchanged between the GMSC – HLR – MSC/VLR for the purpose of interrogation is sent over the No. 7 signalling network. The Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN), according to the GSM recommend ations, consists of three parts: MSRN = CC + NDC + SN CC = Country Code NDC = National Destination Code SN = Subscriber Number e. g. : 91 + 98 + 22 + 005XXX where, 005XXX is sent by MSC. 00 is for Pune MSC, 20 is for Nagpur MSC, 10 is for Goa MSC.Note: In this case, SN is the address to the serving MSC The IMEI is used for equipment identification. An IMEI uniquely identifies a mobile station as a piece or assembly of equipment. (See IMEI, chapter 5. ) IMEI = TAC + FAC + SNR + sp TAC = Type Approval Code (6 digits), determined by a central GSM body FAC = Final Assembly Code (2 digits), identifies the manufacturer SNR = Serial Number (6 digits), an individual serial number of six digits uniquely identifying all equipment within each TAC and FAC sp = spare for future use (1 digit) e. g. 52518 + 00 + 581976 + 3 Where, 35 is for Nokia Handsets According to the GSM specification, IMEI has the length of 15 digits. 2. 5 Location Area Identity (LAI) LAI is used for location updating of mobi le subscribers. LAI = MCC + MNC + LAC MCC = Mobile Country Code (3 digits), identifies the country. It follows the same numbering plan as MCC in IMSI. MNC = Mobile Network Code (2 digits), identifies the GSM/PLMN in that country and follows the same numbering plan as the MNC in IMSI. LAC = Location Area Code, identifies a location area within a GSM PLMN network.The maximum length of LAC is 16 bits, enabling 65 536 different location areas to be defined in one GSM PLMN. E. g. 404 +22 + 10000 where 10000 is the LAC for Pune. 2. 6 Cell Global Identity (CGI) CGI is used for cell identification within the GSM network. This is done by adding a Cell Identity (CI) to the location area identity. CGI = MCC + MNC + LAC + CI CI = Cell Identity, identifies a cell within a location area, maximum 16 bits e. g. 404 + 22 + 10000 + 726 Where, 404 + 22 + 10000 is the LAI for Pune and 726 are the CI of one of the cells of Pune. CI is different for all the three sectors of the cell. . 7 Base Station Ide ntity Code (BSIC) BSIC allows a mobile station to distinguish between different neighbouring base stations. BSIC = NCC + BCC NCC = Network Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the GSM PLMN. Note that it does not uniquely identify the operator. NCC is primarily used to distinguish between operators on each side of border. BCC = Base Station Colour Code (3 bits), identifies the Base Station to help distinguish between BTS using the same BCCH frequencies e. g. 71 Where 7 is the NCC for IDEA Operator. and 1 is the BCC. BCC can range from 0 to 7 Chapter 3 GSM Network ElementsGSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication & is a globally accepted standard for digital cellular communication. GSM is the name of a standardization group established in 1982 to create a common European mobile telephone standard that would formulate specifications for a pan-European mobile cellular radio system operating at 900 MHz. It is estimated that many countries outside of Europe will join the GSM partn ership. GSM provides recommendations, not requirements. The GSM specifications define the functions and interface requirements in detail but do not address the hardware.The reason for this is to limit the designers as little as possible but still to make it possible for the operators to buy equipment from different suppliers. The GSM network is divided into three major systems: ? The switching system (SS) ? The base station system (BSS) ?The operation and support system (OSS) 3. 1 GSM BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara 14 RF OPTIMIZATION AND PLANNING 3. 2 BASIC GSM NETWORK ARCHITECTURE 3. 2. 1 SWITCHING CENTRE Department of E&C 2010 Lovely Institute of Technology, Phagwara

Integrating Technology Within The Classroom - 928 Words

Literature Review In the last few decades, there has been a push for integrating technology within the classroom. Technologies has become commonly associated with the activities of everyday life, as a result, there has been increased pressure to include technology in classrooms, kindergarten through twelfth grade since the 1980s. (page #?Grant et al., 2015). This technology push has only increased since the last century; educators are no longer responsible for teaching the ‘traditional’ reading, writing, and arithmetic pedagogy of the past. In respect, students are no longer viewed in the same ‘blank slates,’ but as collaborators in their learning. This collaboration is effective in preparing students for the job market of the future, in which these technologies will be ever present and constantly changing. In the 21st century, teachers and students have access to a constantly evolving series of technologies which has facilitated a continued interest in how to use these types of technology in educational environments. Through the incorporation of educational technology models and theories, the practitioner’s focus is specifically on how technology can be used to improve student performance through processes, procedures, and tools. Processes and procedures may comprise any task or intervention involving anything from a simple instructional strategy to a complex instructional system. (Wade et al., 2013). However, successful integration of technology will only occur whenShow MoreRelatedIntegrating Instructional Technology Essay1046 Words   |  5 PagesIntegrating Instructional Technology Rationale The intention of the Comprehensive Classroom Technology Plan is to enhance the use of technology in the classroom to improve the education that students receive in their learning and communicating. 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